Maxwell begins his book, Outline of Christian Worship, by
addressing primitive worship and its origins and growth. He defines worship as
consisting “of our words and actions, the outward expression of our homage and
adoration, when we are assembled in the presence of God.” The words and actions
are governed by the knowledge of God and the human resources we bring to
worship, and Christian worship is distinct in that it is directed to the God
and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. Because the Church has been accompanied by
the Holy Spirit in her worship down through the ages, taking a historical
approach to worship is valid.
Maxwell notes that in the early Church
four things stand out, namely that Christians for a time continued to worship
in the synagogues and in the Temple, that they shared a common meal known as
the Love Feast, and following that feast they celebrated the Lord’s Supper.
Finally, they would then prophesy and/or speak in tongues, though this and the
Love Feast/Agape ceased in the early
church (by the middle of the 2nd century). Maxwell says that synagogue
worship is the pattern primarily for NT worship, and that temple worship had
little impact on the church because most Jews of the Dispersion had never seen
temple worship and the Gentiles knew little of it. The Temple was then
destroyed forty years after Christ, but the synagogues remained, and in fact
the synagogues emerged because of the Jewish Dispersion in an attempt to keep
the Jewish life and faithfulness to God in a foreign land with pagans.
The focus of synagogue worship, where
Jesus would meet for worship and Paul would visit as well, was to hear the Law
read and expounded, first in Hebrew and then in the common tongue. Singings and
prayers would occur around this. As the NT was recorded and received as canon,
the Gospels took prominence and psalms as well as new hymns were composed for
worship in Christian churches. The Church centered its worship around Christ,
and worshiped on the Lord’s Day, Sunday, the day of His resurrection,
culminating in the Lord’s Supper. Maxwell concludes this section stating that
“the typical worship of the Church is to be found to this day in the union of the
worship of the Synagogue and the sacramental experience of the Upper Room; and
that union dates from New Testament times.”
Maxwell then addresses the Last Supper,
and explains it as the Kiddush rather than the celebration of Passover, where
Jewish males would gather regularly to prepare for the Sabbath or a festival.
This in effect would make it a pre-Passover meal, associated with Passover but
not Passover itself. Kiddush was celebrated weekly, not unlike the early
churches’ frequent celebration of the Lord’s Supper, whereas Passover was
celebrated but once per year. Worship around AD 150 or so followed this general
pattern:
The Liturgy of the Word:
Lections from the
Prophets, and the Epistles and Gospels (called
'Memoirs of the
Apostles')
Instruction and
exhortation based upon the lections
Common prayers,
apparently in litany form
Psalms and hymns also probably had a place
The Liturgy of the Upper Room:
Kiss of Peace
Offertory : Collection
of gifts for poor
Bringing in of the
Elements
Prayer of Consecration
:
Thanksgiving for
creation, providence, and redemption
Memorial of Passion
(later known as Anamnesis)
Oblation of gifts with
self-oblation
Invocation of the Word
and Holy Spirit to bless the gifts of
bread and wine (later
known as the Epiclesis)
Intercessions
People's Amen
Fraction
Communion
Dismissal
After the Apostles, the first bit of info
still extant concerning liturgy comes from Clement of Rome’s letter to the
Corinthians in AD 96, where a well-ordered prayer is seen, showing this was a format
likely used in the Church at that time. Offering of oblations/alms is
mentioned, as well as the sanctus/“holy holy holy, Lord of hosts, every
creature is full of thy glory.” The Didache of around 130-140 AD indicates that
the Lord’s Supper was celebrated on Sunday, and that Wednesday and Friday were
fast days. Justin Martyr around 140 made similar notes. Maxwell notes that
early worship kept a balance between the sacramental and Scriptural elements,
noting that both reading and instruction in Scripture and the reception of the bread
and wine were “integral parts of the rite. Without either it was incomplete.”
Also of note, the deacons distributed the bread and wine. Only around AD 200
and after do we see Vigils/midnight services in preparation for the eucharist,
and later the observance for commemorating martyrs.
Turning to the 3rd and 4th
centuries, Cyprian is the first to mention the Sursum corda, the intro to the prayer of Consecration. The
salutation of the minister greeting the saints emerges, and use of the Lord’s
Prayer is also seen. More signs of respect emerged especially when the Bible
was carried from the Holy Table to where it was to be read, and when the
elements were brought to the Holy Table. Maxwell notes this pattern during the
3rd and 4th centuries:
The Liturgy of the Word:
Lections: Law,
Prophets, Epistles, Acts, Gospels, Letters from
bishops
Psalms sung by cantors
between the lections
Alleluias
Sermon or sermons
Deacon's litany for
catechumens and penitents
Dismissal of all but
the faithful
The Liturgy of the Upper Room:
Deacon's litany for
the faithful, with diptychs (lists of names) of
living and dead
Kiss of peace
Offertory : Collection
of alms
Presentation of
elements
Preparation of
elements and admixture of water to wine
Sursum corda
Consecration Prayer:
Preface : Thanksgiving
and adoration for creation, &c.
Sanctus
Thanksgiving for
redemption
Words of Institution
Anamnesis
Epiclesis
Great Intercession for
living and dead
Lord's Prayer
Fraction
Elevation 'Holy things
to the holy' and Delivery
Communion of all in
both kinds, each communicant replying Amen;
during reception
Psalms xliii and xxxiv were sung by cantors
Post-communion
Thanksgiving
Deacon's litany and
celebrant's brief Intercession
Reservation of bread
only, for sick and absent
Dismissal
Maxwell notes that these services were
probably 3 hours in length, with worship being responsive and co-operative. Maxwell
adds that formulas in words and similar structure emerged among the churches as
bishop passed down the way things were done to younger presbyters, who passed
it down to the next generation of presbyters, etc. Church plants would often
follow the pattern of their mother church. Of note is that the deacons would be
involved with distributing the elements of the Lord’s Supper and would even say
certain things in the liturgy, along with the Presbyters and bishop. The Church
Order of Hippolytus reflecting Roman liturgy was also discovered, and had some
similarities and a few differences with more Jewish Christian services.
Maxwell then discusses the so-called
Clementine Liturgy of c. A.D. 350-380, to give an example of an Eastern Liturgy
and particularly the Syrian Church in the city of Antioch. This was recorded
and unaltered so it is a very valuable source. The general pattern was:
The Liturgy of the Word
[Prayers : Litanies,
&c. ?]
Lections from Law,
Prophets, Epistles, Acts, Gospels, interspersed
with psalms sung by
cantors
Sermons
Dismissal of
catechumens, &c. ; four classes in all, after a separate
deacon's litany and bishop's
prayer of blessing has been said
for each class
Liturgy of the Upper Room
Deacon's litany and
bishop's prayer for the faithful
Salutation and
response
Kiss of Peace, with
words and response
Offertory: Ceremonial
washing of bishop's and presbyters' hands
Presentation of
elements at Holy Table by deacons
Vesting of celebrant
in a 'splendid vestment'
'Fencing' of Table by
chief deacon
Sursum corda, preceded
by salutation
Consecration Prayer:
Preface: Thanksgiving
for Creation and Providence (very long)
Sanctus
Thanksgiving for
Redemption
Anamnesis : Words of
Institution
Memorial and Oblation
Epiclesis
Great Intercession
[Lord's Prayer?]
Deacon's litany and bishop's
prayer
Elevation: 'Holy
things, &c.', with response
Gloria in excelsis
(Luke ii. 14 only)
Benedictus qui venit
(Matt. xxi. 9, and the words, 'God
is the Lord, and hath
appeared unto us')
Delivery: 'The Body of
Christ; 'The Blood of Christ: the cup of
life'
Communion, while Psalm
xxxiv is sung
Deacon's Exhortation
and Bidding
Bishop's post-communion,
thanksgiving, and intercession
Bishop's prayer of
blessing
Dismissal of people by deacon
It appears that lections/readings
were used to start service and were quite long. They were drawn from Scripture
in the order of the Law, historical books, Job and the Wisdom books, the
Prophets, Acts, Epistles, and Gospels. Here as in the rest of the Church up to
this century, the men sat on one side and the women on the other, and here we
see that the deacons assisted them to their seats and even helped with reading
of the lections (though the congregation would stand during or after the
reading of Scripture in solemn silence). The church in the east was often a
basilica with apse. At the conclusion of the Liturgy of the Word and prior to
the Liturgy of the Upper Room (as Maxwell divides worship into these two main
heads), those not entitled to take part in the Liturgy of the Faithful were
dismissed by a deacon, which included catechumens, those possessed of evil
spirits, candidates for baptism undergoing advanced instruction, and those
under discipline (this dismissal was practiced in the Western church as well). In
the Eastern church at this time, the deacon actually fenced the table. The
deacons bring the elements to the Holy Table, the presbyters stand on the right
and left of the bishop, and the bishop prays in silence, puts on a splendid
vestment, and “standing at the Holy Table facing the people, makes the sign of
the cross on his forehead, and salutes the people.” The Bishop praises God and
recounts His great works, down through redemptive history, including types and
shadows of the covenant, pointing to Christ. The Bishop prays for all the
people and all the Church all over the world, giving all the glory to God.
After the prayer likely the Lord’s prayer was recited. The bishop after a brief
litany from the deacon and after he says “Let us attend!” elevates the Bread
and the Cup in sight of the people, and like the Western Church says, “Holy
things to the holy,” and the people answer, “There is one Holy, one Lord Jesus
Christ; unto the glory of God the Father, blessed forever. Amen.” More
hymn-singing followed and then the bread was broken and distributed by the
bishop, while the deacons distributed the wine, and the people came forward to
the steps of the apse or sanctuary to receive. Psalm 34 was sung during
communion, where the words “O taste and see that the Lord is good” has special
meaning. The deacon concludes things with prayer and dismissal. Maxwell notes
that in all this the Real Presence of Christ is at the fore, and throughout the
services Scripture was preeminent, seen in the responses, psalms, hymns,
lections, exposition, etc. Maxwell notes that there was a didactic element to
the whole service, which is “essential to intelligent participation in the holy
Mysteries,” and characterized worship in the early church.
The Eastern Rites in the 5th and 6th
centuries were similar to what we have just examined, though they did build
upon that foundation. Here Maxwell gives a helpful breakdown of the
classification of the rites of Christendom under the names of the three great
patriarchates, Antioch (Syria), Alexandria, and Rome, not necessarily because
they originated there but they do reflect the usage in those regions by the 5th
century:
1. ANTIOCH.
a. The
Apostolic Constitutions, Books II and VIII
b. The
Byzantine rite (Constantinople)
i.
Liturgy of St. Basil
ii.
Liturgy of St. Chrysostom
c. The
Jerusalem rite
i.
Liturgy of St. James
ii.
All other Syrian rites
iii.
The Persian rites (Nestorian)
2. II.
ALEXANDRIA.
a. Sarapion
b. The Liturgy
of St. Mark
c. All other
Egyptian and Ethiopic rites
3. III.
ROME.
a. The early Roman rite
b. The Gallican rites (All the non-Roman Western
rites)
c. The Lutheran, Reformed, and Anglican rites
Within each type there was still some
fluidity to the liturgy. Prayers were still often extemporaneous. All liturgies
derive from one of these original three, however, and soon in the following
centuries we will see that all liturgy became uniform, with a book of prayer
being followed very carefully, etc. The lection readings also varied during the
4th and 5th centuries with some having more and some
having less. Creeds in the 6th century onwards were found in the
Liturgy of the Faithful in the East, associated with the Offertory or
Communion. A sanctuary screen emerged especially in the 4th century,
dividing the apse from the nave. This became a screen that was decorated with
pictures of Christ, Mary, Evangelists, Apostles, and saints. Pictures were
known as icons, and the screen itself was the iconostasis. Communion by the 5th
century was not observed every Sunday. Music also began to emerge, and choirs,
with elaborate songs that came to represent all the people. In general by the 5th
century things became much more ornate and elaborate, even where the Bible was
ceremonially blessed and kissed by the people as it was carried forward in a
train of ministers and acolytes carrying crosses, lights, and incense.
Intinction emerged in the East particularly after the 4th century.
Elaborate symbolism began to dominate worship services, and in some places
emotionalism replaced the intellect and the sermon in some locales faded into
the background. Maxwell goes a long way in defending elaborate symbolism,
referring to even Puritan John Bunyan who said that there was an Eye-gate as
well as an Ear-gate to the City of Mansoul. Maxwell concludes this look at the
East noting that they, despite embracing mystery in their worship, did
translate the liturgy into the language of the community using it, so that we
find Greek, Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, Persian, Slavonic, Latin, and other
languages.
In the next chapter, Maxwell covers the
Liturgical forms in the West, from A.D. 500-1570. He notes that the groundwork
is the same as that of the East, emerging from the Synagogue and the Upper
Room, and fell into the divisions of the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of
the Faithful. In the West there was many more changeable parts (called
“propers”) than the East, including various readings and psalms. From 500-900
there were the Roman rite and the Gallican rite, which spread over Europe and
varied in its use locally. Under Pepin and Charlemagne the Gallican rites were
suppressed, but by that point the remaining Roman rite of the 10th
century was colored with Gallican content. The Roman rite ascended from
900-1520, where things were still not absolutely set in stone. 1520 saw the
first Lutheran masses in Germany, modified from the Roman liturgy.
The Gallican rite grew from more barbarous
people outside of Rome and incorporated the people in worship with responses
and music. The deacon directed the devotions of the people, lead in litanies,
and ministered the Cup at communion. The Lord’s prayer was either recited by
all or at least all the ministers. The Gallican rite was more “sensuous,
symbolical, and dramatic” than the Roman, and much longer. Its liturgy in the
late 7th century in France is seen below:
The Liturgy of the Word
Ingressa
or Officium
Celebrant's
salutation : Do-minus sit semper vobiscum, and response
Kyries
Benedictus
(Luke i. 68-79) or Gloria in excelsis
Collect
Prophecy
or Old Testament Lection
Lection
from Acts
or Epistles
Benedictus
es ('Blessed
art thou,
O Lord
God of our fathers') or
Benedicite
Gospel
(Procession with
lights, and Gloria tibi, Domine)
Chant
Tersanctus or Kyries
Sermon
or Homily
Deacon's
litany
Dismissal
of catechumens
The Liturgy of the Upper Room
Offertory
: Collection and preparation of elements
Admixture
(of water
with wine)
Psalm
sung throughout antiphonally
(Prayer
of the Veil)
(Litany of the Faithful)
Reading
of diptychs
Collect
after the names
Kiss
of Peace, and collect for peace
Salutation
and Sursum corda
Prayer
of Consecration
:
Contestatio
or Immolatio
(i.e. Preface.
Long, diffuse,
varied,
always
a proper)
Sanctus
Collect
(Collectio post
sanctus to connect
Sanctus with
Words of
Institution
really the Anamnesis)
Words
of Institution
Post
mysteria (Collect as Epiclesis)
Fraction
(into nine
pieces in form
of cross)
:
Collect
: post secreta
Antiphon
sung meanwhile
Commixture
(of bread
and wine)
also takes
place here
Lord's
Prayer (with protocol and embolism)
Celebrant blesses
people
Delivery and Communion
(while Pszlmxsxiv9 Adaccedentes, is sung)
Prayer of Thanksgiving
or post-communion collect
Deacon dismisses
people: Missa acta est, or In pace,
or other
formula
The
Celtic rite of the early 10th century may also be ascertained from
extant documents, and this liturgy was largely Gallican but with Roman
influence from the 7th century onwards.
Liturgy of the Word
Introit
(not mentioned
in missal, but in tracts. Probably sung from
Psalter)
Salutation
Collect
(St. Peter's
in iii. kal.
Julias)
Imnus
Angelicas (i.e.
the Gloria
in excelsis,
which may have been
preceded
by the Tersanctus or Trisagiori)
Collects
(several, including
that of
the day)
Lection
from Old Testament or
Apocalypse
Epistle
Collects
Psalm
sung antiphonally,
followed by collects
Alleluia^
with more
collects
Deacon's
litany, concluded
by collects
Chalice
half-unveiled, while
Ps. cxli.
2 was sung thrice
Chant,
Veni, Domine,
sanctificator, omnipotew,
et benedic
hoc
sacrificium
preparatum tibi,,
sung thrice
Gospel
Chant,
nature of which
is obscure
Collects
super evangelium
Creed
(that introduced
into Byzantine
rite by the Patriarch Timotheus,
A.D.
51 1 1)
Liturgy of the Upper Room
Offertory
: Full unveiling of elements
Ps.
Ixxxv. 7, Ostende nobts, meanwhile sung thrice
Offering
of paten
and chalice
together with elevation
Diptychs
read, followed
by a collect post nomina
Sursum
corda (no salutation)
Prayer
of Consecration :
Preface
(peculiar to
this rite Stowe)
Proper
Preface inserted
rubric in vernacular
Sanctus
(sometimes Benedictus
qui venit followed
Roman)
Post-sanctus
collect (akin
to Mozarabic for
Christmas day)
Canon
(closely similar
to Roman,2 with a few unimportant
Gallican
peculiarities, and
with many Celtic saints ; The Te
igitur
is preceded
by the words : Canon dominions papae Gilasf)
Fraction,
with Confession of
Faith and Alleluias. The Fraction
was
elaborate, normally
divided into
5 to 13 pieces
in form of
a
cross. At Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost into 65 pieces.
Priest assisted celebrant, hence confraction.
Lord's
Prayer with protocol and embolism
The
Kiss of Peace (formula similar to Mozarabic)
Celebrant's
Blessing of people
Commixture,
Delivery, Communion:
deacon ministering
Cup
During
celebrant's Communion,
Ecce Agnus
Dei sung
During
people's, antiphons
from psalms,
&c.
Post-communion
thanksgiving, Gratia tibi agimus
Deacon's
litany in some
earlier rites
Deacon dismisses people : Missa acta est. In pace
An example of the Roman mass as celebrated
roughly a century before Gregory the Great is listed below (C. AD 500), and it
is noted for being simple and tight with its words, structure, and ceremonies:
Liturgy of the Word
Introit
by two choirs as clergy enter
Kyries
Celebrant's
salutation
Collect(s)
Prophecy
or Old Testament lection
Antiphonal
chant
Epistle
Gradual
(Psalm sung
originally by one voice)
Alleluia
Gospel,
with lights, incense,
responses
Dismissal of those not communicating (Greg.
Dialog. I. ii. 23)
Liturgy of the Upper Room
Offertory:
Collection of elements, spreading of corporal on altar,
preparation
of elements for
communion, offering
of gifts,
admixture,
psalm sung meanwhile
Salutation
and Sursum corda
Prayer
of Consecration
:
Preface
Proper
Preface
Sanctus
Canon
(see pp. 60-3 for text)
Kiss
of Peace
Fraction
Lord's
Prayer with protocol and embolism
Communion,
celebrant first,
then people (Psalm sung
meanwhile)
Post-communion
collect (Thanksgiving)
Dismissal by deacon
The
simplicity was seen also in that there was no elevation at the Words of
Institution of the elements, and no “bell-ringings, censing, lights,
genuflections”. Thus we see the original Roman Rite was quite simple and not
elaborate as is typically thought, that occurred only after it was borrowed in
the subsequent years. But soon this austerity and things being done decently
and in order was lost, in part due to the importance placed on seeing the
Blessed Sacrament elevated, becoming the “ritual centre of the Mass”. Attention
became focused on the visible action with the consecration of the host the most
important part, and the rite itself was mostly inaudible in time.
After Constantine the people partook of
Communion infrequently, and by the 6th century the minimum requirement was at
Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost, and then in 1215 it was reduced to just
Easter, around which time the cup was also withdrawn from the laity. The Nicene
Creed was added in the 11th century in the liturgy in Rome. Prayers at various
points by the celebrant also emerged and were made part of the service
officially by 1570. Also services were still conducted in Latin, which overtime
the laity lost use of that language and so the service was not understood by
them. In the 9th century the idea was already put forward that the purpose of the
liturgy was to visually bring to remembrance the passion of the Christ, with
enactments of many events of Scripture/redemptive history both prior to and
during the life of Christ. The Council of Trent made the Roman mass uniform in
1570. The development by this date is seen in the following:
The Liturgy of the Word
Introit sung by choir
Kyne
eleison (ninetold)J
Entry
of ministers
Private
preparation of ministers at altar steps (said secretly) :
Invocation,
In nomine Patris
. . .
Ps.
xliii, with
v. 4 as antiphon, and Gloria
Ps.
cxxiv. 8.
Confiteor
and Misereatur
of celebrant to ministers
Confiteor
and Misereatur
of ministers to celebrant
Versicles
and responses
from psalms
Collects
Aufer a nobis and Oramus te
Blessing
of incense, and
censing of altar
and ministers
Gloria
in excekis
said secretly by celebrant and sung by choir
Salutation
and collects
of the day,
after which
celebrant says
the
the
Epistle and gradual silently
Epistle,
sung by subdeacon ; response, Deo gratias
Gradual
sung by choir
Tract
or Sequence
(if any)
sung by choir, while are said
Prayers
and Preparation
for the Gospel:
Munda cor meum
jfube Domme benedicere
Dominus sit in corde tuo
Salutation, announcement of Gospel, and by celebrant
ministers' response, Gloria tibi Domine
Gospel recited in low tone
Response by ministers, Laus tibi Christe (all in
underline done by celebrant)
The
same repeated,
except for
celebrant's blessing added, by deacon
Gospel,
with lights
and incense,
sung by deacon, and responses sung by ministers
Preacher
goes to
pulpit :
Intimations
Bidding
Prayers
Epistle
and Gospel
read in vernacular
Sermon
Nicene
Creed sung
as Gloria
in excelsis
Salutation
and bidding
to prayer, but no prayer
The Liturgy of the Upper Room
Offertory
: Psalm
verses sung
throughout while
celebrant proceeds
secretly
Offering
of bread : collect, Suscipe sancte Pater
Admixture
of water
to wine
: collect, Deus qui humanae
Offering
of chalice :
collect, Offerimus
tibi
Prayers,
In spiritu
humilitatis and Veni sanctificator
Blessing
of incense : Per intercessionem
Censing
of elements : Incensum istud
Censing
of altar,
saying Ps. cxli. 2-4
Censing
of ministers
Washing
of celebrant's
hands, while he recites the Lavabo,
Ps.
xxv. 6-12, with Gloria
Oblation,
Suscipe sancta Trinitas, Orate fratres (said audibly),
and
Suscipiat Dominus
Secrets
(collects corresponding
to those
of the
day)
Salutation
and Sursum corda
(sung)
Prayer
of Consecration :
Preface
and Proper
Preface sung
by celebrant
(then Sanctus
and
Benedictus said
audibly)
Sanctus,
sung by choir while the celebrant proceeds
with the
Canon,
said silently
(except for raising of the voice at Nobis
quoque),
bell rung
to announce
beginning
Elevation,
with bells
and incense
at Words of Institution and
singing
of Benedictus
qui venit
Canon
concludes with
ecphonesis
Lord's
Prayer sung by celebrant, with protocol and embolism
Pax and Fraction
and Commixture
Agnus
Dei said by celebrant, then sung by choir
Celebrant's
Communion (while Agnus Dei is sung) :
Collect,
Domine Jesu
Christe
Kiss
of Peace
to clergy
Collects,
DomineJesu
Christefili
Dei m?/and Perceptio
corporis tui
and Centurion's words, Domine non sum dignus (said audibly)
He
receives the
Bread, saying Words of
Delivery
Thanksgiving,
Ps. cxvi.
12-13
He
receives the Cup, saying
Words of Delivery
(Communion of the people, in one kind,
vdth Ecce Agnus
Det,
Words of Delivery and Domine
non sum dignus : very rare at
High
mass)
Communion
Psalm sung by choir
Cleansing
of chalice
Collects
Quod ore sumpsimus and Corpus tuum Domine
Covering
of Chalice
Salutation
and Post-communion
collects
Deacon's
salutation and dismissal of people
Collect,
Placeat tibi
Blessing
of People, Benedicat vos
Last Gospel, John i. 1-14, and response Deo gratias
We
now come to the rights of the Churches of the Reformation, from 1520 to the
present day. By this time period, the mass was culminated with the miracle of
transubstantiation and the people could not participate in communion more than
once per year, and even then everything was conducted in a foreign tongue and
with much ceremony, sermons being rare due to many priests being illiterate and
offices being sold to the highest bidder. The Reformation did not immediately
bring better forms to worship, the Reformers being largely ignorant of anything
but what they were accustomed to, so they simply took out what they thought was
incompatible with their theology, though they did establish some lasting
principles. Maxwell turns to five schools of Reformational liturgical revision:
Luther in Germany; Zwingli at Zurich; Bucer at Strasbourg; Calvin at Strasbourg
and Geneva; and Cranmer in England.
Luther reformed the Lord’s Supper by
emphasizing the body of Christ meeting with the Lord. This meant Communion was
no longer something performed on stage and unintelligible, but was participated
in, by, and with the people (and they partook of both bread and wine). He
initially wanted daily communion but ended up settling on weekly communion, and
that became the early Lutheran tradition. He pushed against the idea that Mass
was a re-sacrificing of Christ, but did understand that it was showing the
believer’s participation/union with Christ and His sacrifice. He stripped some
things away from the RCC worship but didn’t make changes as thoroughly or as
quickly as might be hoped:
Liturgy of the Word
Introit
or German
hymn
Kyrie
eleison
Salutation
and collect
Epistle
German
hymn
Gospel
Apostles'
Creed (Elements
prepared now)
Sermon or homily
Liturgy of the Upper
Room
Paraphrase
of Lord's
Prayer
Exhortation
Recitation
of Words of Institution, accompanied by Fraction and
Deliver}7
Communion,
hymns sung
meanwhile
Post-communion collect
Aaronic Blessing
The Zwinglian Rites and view of the Lord’s
Supper is not merely a memorial as some have supposed. Maxwell says that
Zwingli differed from Calvin and Luther in that he was more rationalistic and
analytical, emphasizing God’s transcendence far more than His complementary
immanence. Zwingli was not in favor of frequent communion and downplayed the
Real Presence of Christ compared to Luther and Calvin, as he did not see
Communion as a normal/regular/routine part of Christian worship. He went much
further than Luther in revising the Roman Catholic Mass but also only
celebrated the Lord’s Supper four times a year, during Easter, Whitsun, autumn,
and Christmas. He also originated taking communion while sitting. His German
structure is as follows:
Liturgy of the Word
Ordinary
Morning Service
(a form
of mattins),
concluding with
Sermon
and a Confession of sins
Offertory
: preparation of elements
Invocation:
cln the Name of the Father, &c. ?
Collect
Epistle
Gloria
in excelsis
(said antiphonally)
Gospel
Apostles'
Creed
Liturgy of the Upper
Room
Exhortation
Fencing
of the Table
The Lord's Prayer
Prayer
of humble
access
Words of Institution, with :
Fraction
Ministers'
communion
Delivery,
and communion of the people
Post-communion
psalm (said
antiphonally)
Post-communion
collect
Dismissal
Bucer brought a Zwinglian influence to
Strasbourg and its Reformers, a compromise between Luther and Zwingli’s view. References
and prayers to Mary and the saints were gutted, and the general theology of
Roman Catholicism was removed. The rite was now said audibly and followed as
below:
Liturgy of the Word
Preparation
at the altar steps:
Invocation:
'In the Name, &c.'
Confession
of sins,
the local
Confiteor revised
Absolution:
i Tim. i. 15
Scripture
Sent. (Ps. cxxiv.
8: 'Our help,
&c.') from celebrant's
private
preparation in old rite, said as he goes to alter
Salutation
and response
Introit,
said not sung
Kyries
Gloria
in excelsis
Salutation
and collect
Epistle
Gospel
Nicene
Creed, said
Liturgy of the Upper Room
Offertory:
Preparation
of elements
Exhortation1
Salutation
and Sursum corda
Preface
and proper
preface
Sanctus
and Benedictus
qui venit
Lavabo
and related
collect
Canon
(said standing,
with upraised
hands) :
Intercessions
Prayer for quickened life
Words
of Institution,
with elevation
Anamnesis
Lord's
Prayer, with
Matthean doxology
Pax
Agnus
Dei
Communion
collect, Dominejesu
Christe fili
Dei vivi
Celebrant's
communion
Deliver}and People's communion (in both kinds, if desired)
Two
post-communion collects
Salutation and response
Blessing,
Benedicat vos
Of
note is that in time the Latin titles were replaced with German titles, the
Epistles and Gospels began to be read in course/verse by verse and of greater
length, and sermons are regularly preached, at times on each of the lections. Confession
was made when preparing for Communion, and the minister would pronounce
absolution (p. 103ff. in the PDF shows this). Bucer’s influence increased and
there was some variation over time, with prayers becoming longer and more
prolix, to the detriment of the service. By 1537 only the black gown and
cassock were retained of the priest’s garb, and by 1537 communion was not celebrated
weekly in each parish church but only at the cathedral. Fewer holy days are
observed apart from Sunday/The Lord’s Day. There was a 4 AM service, an 8 AM
service, and a 5 PM service (these times pushed back an hour in winter), and
after the 8 AM service time of catechetical type instruction was given to the
children in the 10 Commandments, the Apostle’s Creed, and the Lord’s Prayer,
except when it was too cold. Four times a year in the parish churches general
congregational catechization was held morning and afternoon concerning “the
central facts of the Christian faith, the Creed, the 10 Commandments, the
Lord’s Prayer, the Sacraments, and the issues of all these in daily life and
works.”
After
Bucer, certain alterations occurred to the liturgy, including the replacement
of the Gloria in excelsis and the Kyries with metrical psalms and hymns. The
Sanctus and the Benedictus qui venit, almost as old as the church itself, were
replaced with more general thanksgivings for Christ’s work. The only lections
kept were those from the NT, and the sermon length was increased to a full
hour. But Maxwell summarizes the German rites of Strasbourg as the service that
becomes the norm for Sunday morning worship in Reformed Churches, Maxwell
noting that though the eucharist is no longer central, the service is immensely
richer in content and broader in scope.
CALVIN’S FRENCH RITES AT STRASBOURG
AND GENEVA
Maxwell
notes that Calvin desired “to restore the eucharist in its primitive simplicity
and true proportions – celebration and communion – as the central weekly
service, and, within this service, to give the Holy Scriptures their
authoritative place. The Lord’s Supper, in all its completeness, was the norm
he wished to establish” (112). Calvin became minister of French exiles at
Strasbourg from 1538-1541. Calvin adopted the worship in Strasbourg/Bucer almost
word for word, and the French were permitted to celebrate communion monthly by
the civil magistrates. Calvin designed worship to reflect the early/ancient
church. Below is a side-by-side comparison of Bucer’s German rite of 1537,
Calvin’s in Strasbourg, and on the right, Calvin’s at Geneva:
Maxwell
notes that the middle column, Calvin’s at Strasbourg, more likely reflects his
mind, as the magistrates in Geneva wanted things more simple and meager. Calvin
was concerned to restore the eucharist in its “primitive simplicity and
completeness as the weekly worship of the Church. The Holy Scriptures, read in
course and expounded, were given their central place as in the ancient rites;
but he was concerned to restore not the Scriptures alone, but also weekly
communion” (116). Alas, Calvin was never able to celebrate communion weekly due
to the magistrates of Geneva, and so the Zwinglian precedence of separating the
eucharist from the regular Sunday worship prevailed in Geneva. In fact, in
Geneva only quarterly communion was permitted.
Calvin’s
practice was followed as the norm of worship in the Calvinian churches in
France, Switzerland, South Germany, Holland, Denmark, and other places. The
pattern is largely the same in many Reformed churches today.
THE REFORMED RITES AND THEIR
SUCCESSORS IN SCOTLAND
The
Scottish used the Second Prayer Book of Edward VI, revised under the influence
of Calvinists, where the Northern Scottish particularly accepted it. Knox liked
it, except that he objected to kneeling at communion, and his co-pastor John
Rough said that it was in agreement at all points with Scripture. The nobles and
barons of the Reforming party in 1557 entered a covenant and adopted the Book of Common Prayer of 1552. This book
was superseded by the Forme of Prayers or Book of Common Order in 1562 concerning
the sacraments, and for all purposes in 1564. John Knox liked Calvin’s liturgy
and teaching, and John Knox’s Genevan
Service Book shows that the form of prayers is derived directly from Calvin’s
service book La Forme des Prieres. But new intercessions and a new prayer of
consecration are listed, similar to Calvin’s but not identical. Below is an
example of what was contained in the services, of the Order for the Celebration
of the Lord’s Supper:
Here
we see the Eucharist presented simply yet with true devotion and catholicity.
The Liturgy of the Word, though few in parts, was lengthy, the lection and
sermon usually taking an hour or longer to complete. The sermon was an
exposition and exhortation based upon the lection. An epiclesis for the Lord’s
Supper was likely added later. Sometimes in Scotland wafer or unleavened bread
was used, and in some cases water was mixed in with the wine. Communion was
practiced only quarterly in Scotland in the large towns, and less frequently in
the country. The biggest reason for this was the shortage of ministers
available, though the habit had been to participate once a year or less, and
the restrictions in Geneva may have affected them as well, despite Calvin’s
wishes. In the 20th century monthly communion and even weekly
communion can be found in Scotland, but quarterly is also found. Communion was
received sitting as the people came forward and sat at a long Communion Table,
but that custom has all but disappeared, and the Bread and Wine are now taken
by the elders to the people in their pews.
Like
with Calvin, even when communion was not celebrated, much of the liturgy of the
eucharist was retained, omitting only that which pertained to consecration and
communion. Only the Church of Scotland officially abandoned the Christian Year,
but in practice many parishes still observed chief festivals. Knox was very
influential in the worship of Scotland, taking what he discovered at Geneva to
them. Eventually in Scotland, the solemn league and covenant was ratified,
signed with the English rebels. This was just prior to the Westminster
Assembly, at which the Scottish had a handful of very influential delegates who
could participate in discussion but could not vote. In 1645 the Westminster
Confession of Faith along with The Form
of Presbyterial Government and the Directory
for Public Worship was accepted by the Scottish Assembly. The Directory was influenced by the Book of Common Prayer and the Forme of Prayer, giving precise
directions on the order and content of the service. Here is an example of the Liturgy
of the Word and the Lord’s Supper:
This
format was quite detailed and long, and was only accepted with great
difficulty, in part due to Independents. In fact, within just years the Creed
was nixed and the doxology after the psalms. The Lord’s Prayer was no longer
recited. Many of the readings fell into disuse and various overtures had to be
introduced to try to revive it into the mid 1800’s. Soon the worship became
very basic, with Communion partaken of very infrequently, and just a few psalms
sung, a long concluding prayer after the sermon, one more psalm and a
benediction. In the last century or so music in the Church of Scotland has
revitalized and prayers vary from spontaneous to prepared. In the 1920’s
various books on prayer and order were written for the Church of Scotland,
which Maxwell says enriched their worship. The new liturgical order, says
Maxwell, was:
Designed for brevity, and is somewhat shorter
than the customary celebration in a parish church, where there may be more singings.
But it indicates the richness of the Scottish liturgical tradition, and both its
centrality and independence. The principal weakness of this rite is the
attenuated oblation, and the absence of any self-oblation ; the Consecration
Prayer is also devoid of the note of unity with the whole Church, and closing with
the epiclesis, it is too abrupt in its conclusion. 1 The rite is, nevertheless,
noble and adequate, rich in its content, felicitous in its expression, simple yet
dignified in its action.
The Reformed Rites and their
Successors in England
In
English Puritanism there was the Presbyterians and the Independents/Congregationalists.
Until the Westminster Directory, the
Puritans preferred the Forme of Prayers. The
services were simple and the book was used as a guideline only. Worship was at
a low point in the 18th and 19th centuries in Presbyterian
and Congregationalist churches in England, where prayers were lengthy and
didactic, everything being stripped down mostly to just the sermon. More modern
liturgy in England for Presbyterians follows the Directory of Public Worship (first edition 1898). The Congregationalists,
by their very nature of church government, vary from church to church greatly,
though in 1920 the Book of Congregational
Worship was introduced as a mere guideline.
Methodists
in England likewise had widely divergent worship, from the barest Puritan
service to Anglican evangelical style service. Like the English churches,
communion was celebrated monthly or quarterly. Wesley made a few changes to the
Book of Common Prayer, which is followed by Methodists all over the world.
The English Rite in the Book of
Common Prayer
The
Church of England developed its own worship tradition, but was closer to
Calvinism in doctrine, and liturgically was more Lutheran. In the 1540’s it was
decreed that a chapter from the OT and the NT should be read on holy days, and
by 1543 communion in both kinds were given to the people. An Order of Communion and First Book of Homilies was produced. The
first Book of Common Prayer was the
work of Cranmer, assisted by Ridley and others, and survives in use to the day
of Maxwell. Roman Catholic elements were removed from the service, and the
service in general was simplified. An example follows:
Sadly, this rite never became
accepted by the Church of England. An impoverished prayer book was substituted.
The preparation for the Lord’s
Supper was made entirely subjective. Many of the prayers and other portions
were deleted. Yet this book too was not used here, but only in Scotland, as
Mary returned and restored the old Roman rite. But in 1559 the Book of Common Prayer was revised and
used in England under Queen Elizabeth. The Book of Common Prayer has not had
any successful serious revision since 1662. In the Church of England today, the
rite is celebrated in widely divergent ways.
THE SCOTTISH LITURGY IN THE SCOTTISH
BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
The Book of Common Prayer was
completed in 1637, similar to the English rite of 1549 but with revisions. But
the Scottish rejected the book as an English book, expressing the “views of a
high-handed monarch and a tactless archbishop” (155). Various revisions have
taken place in the Episcopal Church in Scotland over the most recent centuries,
but is as follows (see next page). Maxwell
briefly examines some other, lesser known and more recent, liturgies, such as
The United Church of Canada, but he mentions them mostly in passing, and so
will not be covered here.
Maxwell
now turns to section five of his book, called The Christian Cycle of Prayer. He mentions Quire (choir, the part
of the church where the prayers were said) offices and relates it to the Jewish
practice, and speaks of how in the book of Acts it is mentioned that the 3rd,
6th, and 9th hours are mentioned as hours for Christians
to pray. These prayers are observed and established in large churches by the 4th
century, though it likely began privately. This increased and were especially
observed by the monastics. The purpose was “the orderly recitation of the
Psalter and reading of the Bible, and the sanctification of time, day and
night, by prayer and praise.” Luther altered these practices at the
Reformation, trying to fit them for daily use as public morning and evening
services. In Calvinist churches they disappeared altogether, replaced with
private prayers, clergy and people meeting on certain days, Catechism on Sunday
afternoons, weekly studies of Scripture, etc. Cranmer adapted Luther’s pattern,
making them into two daily services in the first Book of Common Prayer of 1549. Over the years, the structure
between Anglican Morning Prayer and the present Sunday morning worship of the
Scottish Church is revealed (as of the late 1920’s).
Addressing
“The Christian Year” Maxwell says that Easter was soon observed as a day that
stands out from others in the churches. Lent, the forty days prior to Easter to
symbolize the Lord’s fast in the wilderness, followed. Christ’s birth was
celebrated, though the date varied. Advent, the four Sundays prior to Christmas,
was soon celebrated. Other events between the celebration of the Lord’s birth
and resurrection followed.
Maxwell
then concludes his book by examining some various forms of prayers that the
church has utilized down through the years. Maxwell argues that the Reformed in
the 16th century threw out much good in the forms of prayers until
very recently. He mentions the eucharistic prayer, the most “dignified and
noble form of prayer”. It is introduced by the Sursum Corda, echoing it and moving to thanksgiving. He turns to
litanies, probably adapted from synagogue worship, comprised of intercessory remarks,
each followed by the people’s response of Kyrie
eleison. Luther compiled a German litany, and Cranmer an English one. Some
litanies are not as formal as written prayers, and so some degree of spontaneity
is possible. Maxwell then mentions bidding prayers, comprising a series of
biddings followed by silent prayer (biddings that God would hear one’s prayer
is an example). These are very brief. Maxwell then mentions collects, brief,
direct, concise prayers consisting of five parts, Invocation; Relative Clause;
Petition; Statement of Purpose; Conclusion or Doxology. Acts 1:24-25 serves as
an example:
'Thou, Lord, which knowest the hearts of all
men ; shew whether of these two thou hast chosen, that he may take part of this
ministry and apostleship, from which Judas by transgression fell.'
An example from
the Book of Common Prayer is given as
well. Maxwell turns to suffrages, chosen from the Psalter in the form of
versicles and responses. The first part of an Anglican Morning Prayer below is
an example:
'Minister. The Lord be with you.
Answer. And with thy spirit.
Minister. Let us pray.
Lord, have mercy upon us.
Christ^ have mercy upon us.
Lord, have mercy upon us.
Then the Minister, Clerks, and people
shall say the Lord's Prayer with a loud voice.
The
people’s amen is also encouraged by Maxwell. It is found in Scripture and means
“so be it”. When the people say it and not the minister alone, it connects the
worshiper with the prayer and keeps their attention. Maxwell says the loss of
this in some reformed churches is “but a perversion of worship which should
cease.” Extemporaneous prayer is where the minister prays in his own words.
Maxwell notes that even this has a form to it, as all prayer must. Maxwell is
not in favor of didactic or teaching prayer, as it is a “degradation of worship.”
Maxwell says extemporaneous prayer should be simple, brief, and that it is
demanding, requiring much familiarity with Scripture.
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